D. Molognoni, P. Bosch‐Jimenez, Rubén Rodríguez-Alegre et al.

Frontiers in Energy Research • 2020

Bioelectrochemical power-to-gas represents a novel solution for electrical energy storage, currently under development. It allows storing renewable energy surplus in the form of methane (CH4), while treating wastewater, therefore bridging the electricity and natural gas (and wastewater) grids. The technology can be coupled with membrane contactors for carbon dioxide (CO2) capture, dissolving the CO2 in wastewater before feeding it to the bioelectrochemical system. This way, the integrated system can achieve simultaneous carbon capture and energy storage objectives, in the scenario of a wastewater treatment plant application. In this study, such technology was developed in a medium-scale prototype (32 L volume), which was operated for 400 days in different conditions of temperature, voltage and CO2 capture rate. The prototype achieved the highest CH4 production rate (147 ± 33 L m–3 d–1) at the lowest specific energy consumption (1.0 ± 0.3 kWh m–3 CH4) when operated at 25°C and applying a voltage of 0.7 V, while capturing and converting 22 L m–3 d–1 of CO2. The produced biogas was nearer to biomethane quality (CH4 > 90% v/v) when CO2 was not injected in the wastewater. Traces of hydrogen (H2) in the biogas, detectable during the periods of closed electrical circuit operation, indicated that hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis was taking place at the cathode. On the other hand, a relevant CH4 production during the periods of open electrical circuit operation confirmed the presence of acetoclastic methanogenic microorganisms in the microbial community, which was dominated by the archaeal genus Methanothrix (Euryarchaeota). Different operational taxonomic units belonging to the bacterial Synergistes phylum were found at the anode and the cathode, having a potential role in organic matter degradation and H2 production, respectively. In the panorama of methanation technologies currently available for power-to-gas, the performances of this bioelectrochemical prototype are not yet competitive, especially in terms of volumetric CH4 production rate and power density demand. However, the possibility to obtain a high-quality biogas (almost reaching biomethane quality standards) at a minimal energy consumption represents a potentially favorable business scenario for this technology.

M. Shahparasti, A. Rajaei, Andres Tarrasó et al.

Electronics • 2021

This paper presents a proposal for potential bioelectrochemical power to gas stations. It consists of a two-level voltage source converter interfacing the electrical grid on the AC side and an electromethanogenesis based bioelectrochemical system (EMG-BES) working as a stacked module on the DC side. The proposed system converts CO2 and electrical energy into methane, using wastewater as the additional chemical energy input. This energy storage system can contribute to dampening the variability of renewables in the electrical network, provide even flexibility and grid services by controlling the active and reactive power exchanged and is an interesting alternative technology in the market of energy storage for big energy applications. The big challenge for controlling this system lays in the fact that the DC bus voltage of the converter has to be changed in order to regulate the exchanged active power with the grid. This paper presents a cascade approach to control such a system by means of combining external control loops with fast inner loops. The outer power loop, with a proportional-integral (PI) controller with special limitation values and anti-windup capability, is used to generate DC bus voltage reference. An intermediate loop is used for DC bus voltage regulation and current reference generation. A new proportional resonant controller is used to track the current reference. The proposed scheme has been validated through real-time simulation in OPAL OP4510.

Necla Altın, R. G. Akay

Journal of Electrochemical Energy Conversion and Storage • 2023

This review article addresses microbial fuel cells (MFCs) as a renewable energy source. MFCs are bioelectrochemical systems that use exoelectrogenic bacterial communities under anaerobic conditions to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. These systems are attracting attention due to their potential to reduce overall energy consumption, produce zero carbon emissions, and exhibit high energy density. The rapid development of renewable energy sources has increased the potential for bioenergy, particularly MFCs, to become one of the most important energy sources of the future. In addition to energy production, MFCs show potential for bioremediation and efficient removal of various pollutants. While MFC technology currently has limited application at the laboratory level, it is expected to increase in commercial use in the near future and offers great potential in the areas of renewable energy and environmental sustainability. This review article focuses on the historical and ecological development of the components used in MFCs, examining in detail their evolution and use in MFCs for renewable energy production.

Eleftheria Sapountzaki, U. Rova, P. Christakopoulos et al.

ChemSusChem • 2023

The urgent need to reduce CO2 emissions has motivated the development of CO2 capture and utilization technologies. An emerging application is CO2 transformation into storage chemicals for clean energy carriers. Formic acid (FA), a valuable product of CO2 reduction, is an excellent hydrogen carrier. CO2 conversion to FA, followed by H2 release from FA, are conventionally chemically catalyzed. Biocatalysts offer a highly specific and less energy intensive alternative. CO2 conversion to formate is catalyzed by formate dehydrogenase (FDH), which usually requires a cofactor to function. Several FDHs have been incorporated in bioelectrochemical systems where formate is produced by the biocathode and the cofactor is electrochemically regenerated. H2 production from formate is also catalyzed by several microorganisms possessing either formate hydrogenlyase or hydrogen-dependent CO2 reductase complexes. Combination of these two processes can lead to a CO2-recycling cycle for H2 production, storage, and release with potentially lower environmental impact than conventional methods.

E. Sudirjo, C. Buisman, D. Strik

Frontiers in Microbiology • 2019

Marine sediment has a great potential to generate electricity with a bioelectrochemical system (BES) like the microbial fuel cell (MFC). In this study, we investigated the potential of marine sediment and activated carbon (AC) to generate and store electricity. Both internal and external energy supply was validated for storage behavior. Four types of anode electrode compositions were investigated. Two types were mixtures of different volumes of AC and Dutch Eastern Scheldt marine sediment (67% AC and 33% AC) and the others two were 100% AC or 100% marine sediment based. Each composition was duplicated. Operating these BES’s under MFC mode with solely marine sediment as the anode electron donor resulted in the creation of a bio-battery. The recharge time of such bio-battery does depend on the fuel content and its usage. The results show that by usage of marine sediment and AC electricity was generated and stored. The 100% AC and the 67% AC mixed with marine sediment electrode were over long term potentiostatic controlled at -100 mV vs. Ag/AgCl which resulted in a cathodic current and an applied voltage. After switching back to the MFC operation mode at 1000 Ω external load, the electrode turned into an anode and electricity was generated. This supports the hypothesis that external supply electrical energy was recovered via bi-directional electron transfer. With open cell voltage experiments these AC marine bioanodes showed internal supplied electric charge storage up to 100 mC at short self-charging times (10 and 60 s) and up to 2.4°C (3,666 C/m3 anode) at long charging time (1 h). Using a hypothetical cell voltage of 0.2 V, this value represents an internal electrical storage density of 0.3 mWh/kg AC marine anode. Furthermore it was remarkable that the BES with 100% marine sediment based electrode also acted like a capacitor similar to the charge storage behaviors of the AC based bioanodes with a maximum volumetric storage of 1,373 C/m3 anode. These insights give opportunities to apply such BES systems as e.g., ex situ bio-battery to store and use electricity for off-grid purpose in remote areas.

P. D. Kolubah, H. Mohamed, Ananda Rao Hari et al.

Small • 2024

MXenes have excellent properties as electrode materials in energy storage devices or fuel cells. In bioelectrochemical systems (for wastewater treatment and energy harvesting), MXenes can have antimicrobial characteristics in some conditions. Here, different intercalation and delamination approaches to obtain Ti3C2Tx MXene flakes with different terminal groups and lateral dimensions are comprehensively investigated. The effect of these properties on the energy harvesting performance from wastewater is then assessed. Regardless of the utilized intercalant molecules, MXene flakes obtained using soft delamination approaches are much larger (up to 10 µm) than those obtained using mechanical delamination methods (<1.5 nm), with a relatively higher content of ─O/─OH surface terminations. When employed in microbial fuel cells, electrodes made of these large MXene flakes have demonstrated a power density of over 400% higher than smaller MXene flakes, thanks to their lower charge transfer resistance (0.38 Ω). These findings highlight the crucial role of selecting appropriate intercalation and delamination methods when synthesizing MXenes for bioelectrochemical applications.

S. Molenaar, A. Mol, T. Sleutels et al.

Environmental Science &amp; Technology Letters • 2016

Bioelectrochemical systems hold potential for both conversion of electricity into chemicals through microbial electrosynthesis (MES) and the provision of electrical power by oxidation of organics using microbial fuel cells (MFCs). This study provides a proof of concept for a microbial rechargeable battery (MRB) allowing storage of electricity by combining MES and a MFC in one system. Hexacyanoferrate(II/III) was used as counter redox couple. Duplicate runs showed stable performance over 15 days, with acetate being the main energy carrier. An energy density of around 0.1 kWh/m3 (normalized to anode electrolyte volume) was achieved at a full cycle energy efficiency of 30–40%, with a nominal power output during discharge of 190 W/m3 (normalized to anode volume). With this study, we show a new potential application area for bioelectrochemical systems as a future local energy storage device.

S. Molenaar, M. Elzinga, Sonja G. Willemse et al.

ChemElectroChem • 2019

Recently, the microbial rechargeable battery (MRB) has been proposed as a potentially sustainable and low-cost electrical energy storage technology. In the MRB, bioelectrochemical CO 2 reduction and subsequent product oxidation has successfully been combined in one integrated system. However, finding a suitable counter electrode is hindering its further development. In this work, we have tested two alternative counter electrodes in duplicate-namely, i) oxygen/water and ii) a capacitive electrode-for use in the MRB platform. During daily charge/discharge cycling over periods of 11 to 15 days, experimentally obtained energy efficiencies of 25 and 3.7 % were reported when using the capacitive and the oxygen/water electrodes, respectively. Large overpotentials, resulting in a voltage efficiency of 15 % and oxygen crossover leading to coulombic efficiencies of 25 % caused the considerably lower efficiency for the oxygen/water systems, despite the theoretical higher voltage efficiency. Although the capacitive electrode equipped systems performed better, energy density is limited by the operational potential window within which capacitive systems can operate reliably. Microbial community analysis revealed dominant presence of Geobacter in the bioanode and Selenomonadales in the biocathode. These results do not necessarily bring practical application of the MRB closer, but they do provide new insights in the working principle of this new technology.

A. Dhar, Nadavala Siva Kumar, Mehul Khimani et al.

International Journal of Energy Research • 2019

Naturally available neem tree gum consisting of bioelectrolyte and bioelectrode was fabricated for flexible energy storage device. Structural morphology, thermal stability, porosity and surface area of as prepared bioelectrode were characterized thoroughly by using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) isotherm respectively. The bioelectrolyte conductivity was optimized under various concentrations of lithium ion salts and temperatures through electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). A flexible supercapacitor (SCs) was fabricated by using bioelectrodes and electrolyte and tested for its electrochemical properties. The supercapacitor displayed specific capacitance of 640 Fg‐1 and 200 Fg‐1 at a current density 0.5 Ag‐1 and 1.0 V operating potential window. The energy device has also demonstrated large operational window (2.0 V) and shown 102 Fg‐1 at a current density of 1.0 Ag‐1. The novelty of the present work lies in the simplified, cost‐effective procedure for preparation of biomaterials, their remarkably high stability under strong mechanical bent and long‐term charging‐discharging cycles of the fabricated device.

J. Mathew, A. Inobeme, Y. Azeh et al.

Caliphate Journal of Science and Technology • 2024

The urgent need to mitigate climate change has spurred innovative research in carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies.  Electrochemical approaches utilize electrocatalysis and electrochemical reduction to capture carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial  emissions, demonstrating high selectivity and enabling the production of valuable chemicals and fuels from captured CO2.  Bioelectrochemical techniques leverage microorganisms to convert CO2 into biomass or biofuels, enhancing carbon capture efficiency through biological and electrochemical synergy. Integrating bioelectrochemical systems with renewable energy sources provides a carbon-negative pathway, aiding industry decarbonization. This review underscores the transformative potential of these techniques in revolutionizing CCS strategies, emphasizing their role in addressing climate change while fostering a sustainable, circular economy. 

Mustafa Erguvan, Roohany Mahmud, David W. MacPhee

Energy Storage • 2020

Abstract Electricity production from concentrated solar power (CSP) plants has been more commonplace in the last decade since the sun is one of the most abundant, renewable energy sources. The heat transfer fluid temperature in a CSP plant may go up to 1000°C; however, most of the current power plants operate on temperature ranges between 220°C and 565°C due to decomposition of molten salts in high temperatures. Since the sun is not available at nights and cloudy days, an important consideration is how to store the energy received by the sun to use at other times. In this study, a three‐dimensional borehole heat exchanger model is developed to store solar energy underground using concrete and molten salt as a storage medium and heat transfer fluid, respectively. While molten salt is circulating through a pipe, which is placed into the concrete, heat is transferred from the molten salt to the concrete or vice versa during the charging and discharging processes. Numerous simulations are conducted using ANSYS Fluent, with varying borehole diameters, mass flow rates, and thermal resistances of the borehole wall. Average concrete temperature, outlet heat transfer fluid temperature, and energy and exergy efficiencies are investigated for each case. It was found here that while concrete temperature increases with increasing mass flow rate, the increasing trend is minimal after the mass flow rate increases beyond 6 kg/s. There exists a negative relation between the borehole diameter and average concrete temperature during the charging process, and vice versa in discharging. Energy and exergy efficiencies varied from 0.2% to 98.1% and 0.1% to 77.9%, respectively. While the most efficient system was found at a borehole diameter of 550 mm for adiabatic cases, it was found to be 750 mm when heat leakage is taken into consideration. Borehole diameters of 2000 mm performed the worst among all cases due to low heat transfer rates. Heat leakage was found to have a significant impact on energy and exergy efficiencies, especially in energy efficiencies for higher borehole diameters and low mass flow rates in the discharging process.

Alberto Boretti

Energy Storage • 2022

Abstract A renewable energy‐only grid must couple mutable energy supplies such as wind and solar photovoltaic and affordable energy storage by lithium‐ion batteries to dispatchable energy supply such as Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) with thermal energy storage (TES) and Enhanced Geothermal Energy (EGS). EGS is centered on the exploitation of the substantial unconventional geothermal energy supplies in the crust of the Earth which is missing permeability and groundwater, with significant opportunities in western Saudi Arabia where the solar resource is also relevant. Regarding conventional geothermal energy, thermal efficiencies of the cycles can be increased to above 30% with EGS, and above 40% through the integration of EGS with CSP and TES, surpassing the 50% efficiency mark adopting advanced ultra‐supercritical (AUSC) technologies.

Oleg Dimitriev, Tsukasa Yoshida, He Sun

Energy Storage • 2020

Abstract Energy storage is one of the most important energetic strategies of the mankind, along with other energy challenges, such as development of energy resources, energy conversion, and energy saving. The problem of energy storage is especially actual in respect to renewable sources of energy, such as sun, wind, tides, which have seasonal or diurnal variations and which therefore are not available at any moment of time. This article overviews the main principles of storage of solar energy for its subsequent long‐term consumption. The methods are separated into two groups: the thermal and photonic methods of energy conversion. The comparison of efficiency of energy production and storage through natural and artificial photosynthesis, sensible and latent heat, chemisorptions and physisorption, chemical and electrochemical reactions is given.

Yuko Hirase

IET Energy Systems Integration • 2019

Grid‐tied inverters have become required to equip the function that supports electrical grids stable. So‐called ‘smart inverters’ have also been shown to provide load distribution under steady state. Similarly, other types of advanced inverters that contribute to transient grid stability have recently attracted attention. Combining a battery with an inverter not only enables the use of renewable energy (RE) regardless of time or season but also increases the system inertial and synchronising forces due to its high responsiveness. However, the use of these grid‐supportive features in inverters is commonly not disclosed by manufacturers; thus, a system administrator must uniformly regulate and verify the effects. Although the requirements for smart inverters' are being established, those for advanced inverters with transient contributions have not yet been formulated. Furthermore, these requirements must confirm the transient‐supportive functions regardless of the inverter control method. Therefore, this work proposes a set of guidelines for establishing these requirements based on stabilisation/disturbance theory. Furthermore, it was confirmed by simulation that inverter control satisfying these requirements can be realised, for example, by a control method that simulates a virtual inertial force.

Thorben Muddemann, Bolong Jiang, Ulrich Kunz et al.

ECS Meeting Abstracts • 2017

In search for appropriate processes to enhance the efficiency of municipal sewage plants, microbial fuel cells (MFC) have moved into research focus. Due to the MFC characteristic, which is able to treat wastewater while generating power simultaneously, it is also a promising approach to change the energy balance of sewage plants – switching from the biggest municipal energy consumer to an energy producer. Owing to the small power density of MFCs in comparison to chemical fuel cells, large active surface areas and therefore low-cost cell constructions, electrodes and catalysts are necessary. Challenges in MFC upscaling have been overcome and a functional and less price intensive cell design for integration in existing aeration tanks of municipal wastewater treatment plants has been developed (figure left). The new cell design integrates a double-sided graphite/polymer composite anode between two cathodes, to enlarge the surface area. It allows online half-cell potential measurement and biofilm flushing by nitrogen (figure right), among other options. High performance catalytic active cathodes are used, which are produced in-house by a semi-automatic production line. A fuel cell stack of up to fifty MFCs, each with an active area of 6000 square centimeters respectively, has successfully started operation with real municipal wastewater at the wastewater treatment plant in Goslar, Germany. In addition to the technical cell design, the wastewater parameters strongly affect the electrochemical performance of microbial fuel cells. Therefore the influences of process parameters (temperature, pH, O 2 , TOC etc.) were measured to determine optimized operating points when fed by real wastewater. Additionally cathodic catalysts influence the MFC performance considerably, so the electrode-performance of the scaled up microbial fuel cells were investigated by half-cell measurements. Figure 1

Ayobami S. Oyewo, Alejandro Kunkar, Dmitrii Bogdanov et al.

IET Renewable Power Generation • 2024

Abstract Transitioning to renewables is critical to address the Caribbean's vulnerability to imported fossil fuel price volatility and concerns about climate change. This study presents a first‐of‐its‐kind comprehensive analysis of 17 illustrative pathways varying the impact of e‐fuel imports, grid interconnections and an accelerated energy transition towards the Caribbean's carbon neutrality by 2050. The research method is based on techno‐economic principles for designing a cost‐optimal energy system. An optimisation tool is used, the LUT Energy System Transition Model, to analyse the various pathways. The study finds that high uptake of renewables in Caribbean energy systems significantly lowers costs and enhances reliability, crucial for building competitive and resilient economies. Renewable energy dominated pathways show 7–24% lower cumulative costs compared to alternatives, with grid integration reducing costs by 1–10%. Accelerated transition pathways incur 3–12% higher costs than complete defossilisation by 2050. Solar photovoltaics, wind power, batteries, and electrolysers are pivotal for achieving carbon neutrality by 2050. Importing e‐fuels reduces system costs by 7–16% and supports local resource use. Offshore renewable energy overcome land limitations, driving sustainable development and a vibrant blue economy. High electrification levels with renewable energy, sector coupling, and Power‐to‐X solutions enhance system efficiency and flexibility. Given the dominance of solar photovoltaics, the Caribbean's energy transition could be more appropriately called a ‘Solar‐to‐X Economy’. This research contributes to the international perspective on sustainable energy transition for islands.

Kumar Gurupanch Sanjay, Bhonsle Devanand, Rizvi Tanu

i-manager’s Journal on Electrical Engineering • 2023

This research involves the implementation of a dual-input DC-DC boost converter for integrating solar and fuel cell energy sources with a smart grid. The growing demand for renewable energy sources necessitates the efficient utilization and integration of multiple energy systems. The proposed dual-input converter enables simultaneous extraction and management of power from solar panels and fuel cells, resulting in improved energy generation and utilization. The converter incorporates a smart grid interface, allowing bidirectional power flow between the energy sources and the grid. The design and control strategy of the dual-input converter are discussed in detail, with a focus on achieving high conversion efficiency, maximum power point tracking, and optimal power sharing between the solar panels and fuel cells. The control algorithm utilizes a combination of Perturb and Observe (P&amp;O) and Incremental Conductance (IncCond) methods for Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT), ensuring efficient power extraction from the solar panels. Additionally, a Proportional-Integral (PI) controller is implemented to regulate power flow between the energy sources and the grid. Simulation and experimental results are presented to validate the proposed converter's performance under various operating conditions.

Lewis Hsu, Meriah Arias-Thode, Orianna Bretschger et al.

ECS Meeting Abstracts • 2016

Water and energy are main priorities for much of the world as increasing demands on the world’s resources forces nations to make sustainable choices. Microbial fuel cells emerged as a promising technology to provide energy efficient wastewater treatment at significant cost savings compared to conventional treatment processes. They have an even greater benefit in those areas that are difficult to connect to municipal sewage treatment networks. We discuss here a pilot scale demonstration at a rural Naval training camp in Warner Springs, CA. The system is a 100 gallon system outfitted with a solar energy system that allows full system operation in an energy neutral configuration. The system configuration here was previously tested in the laboratory using wastewater in semi-batch operation at both the 40 gallon scale and 100 gallon scale. Laboratory studies indicated that a 7-day batch treatment time would result in high removal of biological oxygen demand. Effluent quality was also good with more than 99% removal of suspended solids, turbidity, and nitrogen. Before deployment to the field, the system was rebuilt using lessons learned from the laboratory studies and other large scale demonstrations. Considerations for size, portability, ease of use, and operations were considered here and will be discussed. The overall goal for the field-deployed system was to demonstrate continuous treatment at rate of 20 gallon per day. Initial results from the startup phase operating in semi-batch mode show promising results, decreasing the COD content more than 80% over a 7-day treatment time. Results from the ongoing demonstration will also be discussed here. The system here represents a significant move towards providing decentralized wastewater treatment. We examine the feasibility of applying this technology in an off-grid application to meet a real-world requirement. We will also examine lessons learned from the demonstration and possible improvements to incorporate into the next iterations of these types of systems.

Khaya Shabangu, Babatunde Bakare, Joseph Bwapwa

Sustainability • 2022

Microbial fuel cell (MFC) technology turns chemical energy into bioelectricity in a clean and efficient manner, lowering carbon emissions and increasing bioenergy production. It is a multifaceted technique that has the potential to be a panacea for clean water scarcity and sustainable, renewable energy. In this review, the approach focuses on scaling-up and application prospects at a commercial scale. An outlook on various, previously tried methodologies was generated in order to establish a viable bioelectricity scaling-up approach that is also cost-effective in its design. Precise themes were followed to evaluate previously produced models and methodologies for MFCs: principle and anatomical mechanisms, basic applications, bioelectricity scaling-up potentials from previous work and limitations, then an outlook on MFC feasibility and its wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) energy supply chain. The goal of this paper is to derive a viable approach from prior research in order to comprehend how MFC technology may be scaled-up for commercial and practical power output. Essentially, this article summarizes the current energy predicaments faced by South Africa and proposes MFCs as a new knowledge-contributing technology with electricity scaling-up potential. Conclusively, more research on MFC technique scaling-up operating factors is recommended.

Andy Prakoso, Erfan Syahputra, Eko Adhi Setiawan

E3S Web of Conferences • 2018

Electricity has become a very important needs for human life today and one of the parameters in one region condition. Nowadays, the dependence on fossil fuels to fulfill the electricity needs is really worrying, and it causes the depletion of fossil fuels. Today, the whole world is paying more attention to renewable energy as one of the best solution to solve the future energy problems. Renewable energy becomes the best solution because it will not be exhausted and enviromentally friendly. In the other hand, renewable energy also have problem, because it cannot produce energy everytime like photovoltaics which can produce energy only when there is enough solar radiation. Therefore, a hybrid system is made that expected to minimize the weakness from other components of the system. In this project, a hyrid system is designed using HOMER PRO software to calculate the electricity and economic factor of the hybrid system. The objective of this project is to find the best hybrid system that can solve the electricity problems. The system will be independent since grid function will replaced by fuel cell in the 19th year based on the assumption.

Tingke Fang, Annette von Jouanne, Emmanuel Agamloh et al.

Energies • 2024

This paper presents an overview of the status and prospects of fuel cell electric vehicles (FC-EVs) for grid integration. In recent years, renewable energy has been explored on every front to extend the use of fossil fuels. Advanced technologies involving wind and solar energy, electric vehicles, and vehicle-to-everything (V2X) are becoming more popular for grid support. With recent developments in solid oxide fuel cell electric vehicles (SOFC-EVs), a more flexible fuel option than traditional proton-exchange membrane fuel cell electric vehicles (PEMFC-EVs), the potential for vehicle-to-grid (V2G)’s implementation is promising. Specifically, SOFC-EVs can utilize renewable biofuels or natural gas and, thus, they are not limited to pure hydrogen fuel only. This opens the opportunity for V2G’s implementation by using biofuels or readily piped natural gas at home or at charging stations. This review paper will discuss current V2G technologies and, importantly, compare battery electric vehicles (BEVs) to SOFC-EVs for V2G’s implementation and their impacts.

Bin Yang, Feifang Li, Xingwang Zhang et al.

ECS Meeting Abstracts • 2016

Microbial three-electrode cells (M3C) have been widely used as a promising platform for developing biosensors and studying electrochemically active bacteria (EAB). Compared to conventional microbial two-electrode cells (e.g. microbial fuel cells and microbial electrolysis cells), M3Cs can offer more stable and better defined electrochemical environments for various research purposes. This work focuses on developing a microfluidic M3C with micro-liter scale volume by using soft-lithography technology, which has comparable performance as the conventional bench scale M3Cs. In this microfluidic M3C with a build-in three electrode system, laminar flow was exploited to separate the reference electrolyte (0.1 M KCl) from the medium without hindering ion exchange. With the stable and controllable working electrode potential, this device was able to provide a well-defined electrochemical environment for G. sulfurredecens respiration on the electrode. Due to the micro-liter scale volume and a short hydraulic retention time (HRT), fast responses to ferric citrate and formaldehyde with a good reproducibility were achieved. Furthermore, a good linear relationship between the output signal (peak area) and chemicals concentrations was obtained. The microfluidic M3C developed in our work would provide researchers in related areas a versatile platform for biosensor and fundamental EAB study.

Pavlina Theodosiou, John Greenman, Ioannis A. Ieropoulos

Molecules • 2020

Microbial Fuel Cells (MFCs) employ microbial electroactive species to convert chemical energy stored in organic matter, into electricity. The properties of MFCs have made the technology attractive for bioenergy production. However, a challenge to the mass production of MFCs is the time-consuming assembly process, which could perhaps be overcome using additive manufacturing (AM) processes. AM or 3D-printing has played an increasingly important role in advancing MFC technology, by substituting essential structural components with 3D-printed parts. This was precisely the line of work in the EVOBLISS project, which investigated materials that can be extruded from the EVOBOT platform for a monolithically printed MFC. The development of such inexpensive, eco-friendly, printable electrode material is described below. The electrode in examination (PTFE_FREE_AC), is a cathode made of alginate and activated carbon, and was tested against an off-the-shelf sintered carbon (AC_BLOCK) and a widely used activated carbon electrode (PTFE_AC). The results showed that the MFCs using PTFE_FREE_AC cathodes performed better compared to the PTFE_AC or AC_BLOCK, producing maximum power levels of 286 μW, 98 μW and 85 μW, respectively. In conclusion, this experiment demonstrated the development of an air-dried, extrudable (3D-printed) electrode material successfully incorporated in an MFC system and acting as a cathode electrode.

Tom H. J. A. Sleutels, Annemiek ter Heijne, Philipp Kuntke et al.

ChemistrySelect • 2017

Abstract Ion transport through ion exchange membranes in Bioelectrochemical Systems (BESs) is different from other electrochemical cells as a result of the complex nature of the electrolyte, as the electrolytes in BESs contain many other cations and anions than H + and OH − . Moreover, these other cations and anions are generally present in high concentrations and therefore determine the ion transport through the membrane. In this work, we provide a theoretical framework for understanding ion transport across ion exchange membranes in BESs. We show that the transport of cations and anions other than H + and OH − determines the pH gradient between anode and cathode, and on top of that, also determines the membrane potential. Experimental data for microbial electrolysis cells with cation and anion exchange membranes are used to support the theoretical framework. In case of cation exchange membranes, the total potential loss consists of both the pH gradient and the concentration gradient of other cations, while in case of anion exchange membranes, the total potential loss is lower because part of the pH gradient loss can be recovered at the membrane. The presented work provides a better theoretical understanding of ion transport through ion exchange membranes in general and in BESs specifically.

Mohamed Ahmed Ali, Mohey Eldin Mandour, Mohammed Elsayed Lotfy

Fuels • 2025

An efficient adaptive modeling criterion for the polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) is proposed in this paper, which can facilitate its precise simulation, design, analysis and control. In this work, a number of state-of-the-art algorithms have been adapted to optimize the complex electrochemical PEMFC model. Investigations are carried out not only from the conventional perspective of modeling accuracy but also from a new perspective represented by the impact of process computational time. Here, a novel technique of PEMFC modeling is proposed based on a meta-heuristic optimization algorithm called the wild horse optimizer (WHO). The proposed technique is concerned with the impact of the computational time on dynamic PEMFC modeling. A comprehensive statistical analysis was performed on the results of competing meta-heuristic optimizers that were adapted to a common PEMFC modeling problem. Among them, the proposed WHO approach’s results showed a promising performance in terms of its accuracy and minimum computational time over the other state-of-the-art approaches. For further evaluation of the WHO approach, it was used to optimize additional commercial PEMFC stack models. The results of the WHO approach highlighted its superior performance from the point of view of a high accuracy with a low computational burden, which supports its suitability for online applications.

Rubén Rodríguez-Alegre, Alba Ceballos-Escalera, Daniele Molognoni et al.

Energies • 2019

Anaerobic digestion of sewage sludge produces large amounts of CO2 which contribute to global CO2 emissions. Capture and conversion of CO2 into valuable products is a novel way to reduce CO2 emissions and valorize it. Membrane contactors can be used for CO2 capture in liquid media, while bioelectrochemical systems (BES) can valorize dissolved CO2 converting it to CH4, through electromethanogenesis (EMG). At the same time, EMG process, which requires electricity to drive the conversion, can be utilized to store electrical energy (eventually coming from renewables surplus) as methane. The study aims integrating the two technologies at a laboratory scale, using for the first time real wastewater as CO2 capture medium. Five replicate EMG-BES cells were built and operated individually at 0.7 V. They were fed with both synthetic and real wastewater, saturated with CO2 by membrane contactors. In a subsequent experimental step, four EMG-BES cells were electrical stacked in series while one was kept as reference. CH4 production reached 4.6 L CH4 m−2 d−1, in line with available literature data, at a specific energy consumption of 16–18 kWh m−3 CH4 (65% energy efficiency). Organic matter was removed from wastewater at approximately 80% efficiency. CO2 conversion efficiency was limited (0.3–3.7%), depending on the amount of CO2 injected in wastewater. Even though achieved performances are not yet competitive with other mature methanation technologies, key knowledge was gained on the integrated operation of membrane contactors and EMG-BES cells, setting the base for upscaling and future implementation of the technology.

Xueqin Zhang, Hesamoddin Rabiee, Joshua Frank et al.

Biotechnology for Biofuels • 2020

Abstract Background Bioelectrochemical methane oxidation catalysed by anaerobic methanotrophic archaea (ANME) is constrained by limited methane bioavailability as well as by slow kinetics of extracellular electron transfer (EET) of ANME. In this study, we tested a combination of two strategies to improve the performance of methane-driven bioelectrochemical systems that includes (1) the use of hollow fibre membranes (HFMs) for efficient methane delivery to the ANME organisms and (2) the amendment of ferricyanide, an effective soluble redox mediator, to the liquid medium to enable electrochemical bridging between the ANME organisms and the anode, as well as to promote EET kinetics of ANME. Results The combined use of HFMs and the soluble mediator increased the performance of ANME-based bioelectrochemical methane oxidation, enabling the delivery of up to 196 mA m −2 , thereby outperforming the control system by 244 times when HFMs were pressurized at 1.6 bar. Conclusions Improving methane delivery and EET are critical to enhance the performance of bioelectrochemical methane oxidation. This work demonstrates that by process engineering optimization, energy recovery from methane through its direct oxidation at relevant rates is feasible.

Thomas Krieg, Linh M. P. Phan, Jeffery A. Wood et al.

Biotechnology and Bioengineering • 2018

Abstract Bioelectrochemical systems (BESs) have the potential to contribute to the energy revolution driven by the new bio‐economy. Until recently, simple reactor designs with minimal process analytics have been used. In recent years, assemblies to host electrodes in bioreactors have been developed resulting in so‐called “electrobioreactors.” Bioreactors are scalable, well‐mixed, controlled, and therefore widely used in biotechnology and adding an electrode extends the possibilities to investigate bioelectrochemical production processes in a standard system. In this work, two assemblies enabling a separated and non‐separated electrochemical operation, respectively, are designed and extensively characterized. Electrochemical losses over the electrolyte and the membrane were comparable to H‐cells, the bioelectrochemical standard reaction system. An effect of the electrochemical measurements on pH measurements was observed if the potential is outside the range of −1,000 to +600 mV versus Ag/AgCl. Electrobiotechnological characterization of the two assemblies was done using Shewanella oneidensis as an electroactive model organism. Current production over time was improved by a separation of anodic and cathodic chamber by a Nafion® membrane. The developed electrobioreactor was used for a scale‐up of the anaerobic bioelectrochemical production of organic acids and lysine from glucose using an engineered Corynebacterium glutamicum . Comparison to a small‐scale custom‐made electrobioreactor indicates that anodic electro‐fermentation of lysine and organic acids might not be limited by the BES setup but by the biocatalysis of the cells.

Nishant Singh, M. Romero, Alessandra Travanut et al.

Biomaterials Science • 2019

Many debilitating infections result from persistent microbial biofilms that do not respond to conventional antibiotic regimens. A potential method to treat such chronic infections is to combine agents which interfere with bacterial biofilm development together with an antibiotic in a single formulation. Here, we explore the use of a new bioresponsive polymer formulation derived from specifically modified alginate nanoparticles (NPs) in order to deliver ciprofloxacin (CIP) in combination with the quorum sensing inhibitor (QSI) 3-amino-7-chloro-2-nonylquinazolin-4(3H)-one (ACNQ) to mature Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. The alginate NPs were engineered to incorporate a pH-responsive linker between the polysaccharide backbone and the QSI, and to encapsulate CIP via charge-charge interactions of the positively-charged drug with the carboxyl residues of the alginate matrix. In this way, a dual-action release of antibiotic and QSI was designed for the low-pH regions of a biofilm, involving cleavage of the QSI-linker to the alginate matrix and reduced charge-charge interactions between CIP and the polysaccharide as the alginate carboxyl side-chains protonated. When tested in a biofilm model the concomitant release of CIP + QSI from the pH-responsive nanoparticles significantly reduced the viability of the biofilm compared with CIP treatment alone. In addition, the alginate NPs were shown to penetrate deeply into P. aeruginosa biofilms, which we attribute in part to the charges of the NPs and the release of the QSI agent. Finally, we tested the formulation in both a 2D keratinocyte and a 3D ex vivo skin infection model. The dual-action bio-responsive QSI and CIP release nanoparticles effectively cleared the infection in the latter, suggesting considerable promise for combination therapeutics which prevent biofilm formation as well as effectively killing mature P. aeruginosa biofilms.

K. R. Sims, Yuan Liu, G. Hwang et al.

Nanoscale • 2018

Biofilms are surface-bound, structured microbial communities underpinning persistent bacterial infections. Biofilms often create acidic pH microenvironments, providing opportunities to leverage responsive drug delivery systems to improve antibacterial efficacy. Here, the antibacterial efficacy of novel formulations containing pH-responsive polymer nanoparticle carriers (NPCs) and farnesol, a hydrophobic antibacterial drug, were investigated. Multiple farnesol-loaded NPCs, which varied in overall molecular weight and corona-to-core molecular weight ratios (CCRs), were tested using standard and saturated drug loading conditions. NPCs loaded at saturated conditions exhibited ∼300% greater drug loading capacity over standard conditions. Furthermore, saturated loading conditions sustained zero-ordered drug release over 48 hours, which was 3-fold longer than using standard farnesol loading. Anti-biofilm activity of saturated NPC loading was markedly amplified using Streptococcus mutans as a biofilm-forming model organism. Specifically, reductions of ∼2-4 log colony forming unit (CFU) were obtained using microplate and saliva-coated hydroxyapatite biofilm assays. Mechanistically, the new formulation reduced total biomass by disrupting insoluble glucan formation and increased NPC-cell membrane localization. Finally, thonzonium bromide, a highly potent, FDA-approved antibacterial drug with similar alkyl chain structure to farnesol, was also loaded into NPCs and used to treat S. mutans biofilms. Similar to farnesol-loaded NPCs, thonzonium bromide-loaded NPCs increased drug loading capacity ≥2.5-fold, demonstrated nearly zero-order release kinetics over 96 hours, and reduced biofilm cell viability by ∼6 log CFU. This work provides foundational insights that may lead to clinical translation of novel topical biofilm-targeting therapies, such as those for oral diseases.

M. Zare, Ashkan Bigham, M. Zare et al.

International Journal of Molecular Sciences • 2021

Poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (pHEMA) as a biomaterial with excellent biocompatibility and cytocompatibility elicits a minimal immunological response from host tissue making it desirable for different biomedical applications. This article seeks to provide an in-depth overview of the properties and biomedical applications of pHEMA for bone tissue regeneration, wound healing, cancer therapy (stimuli and non-stimuli responsive systems), and ophthalmic applications (contact lenses and ocular drug delivery). As this polymer has been widely applied in ophthalmic applications, a specific consideration has been devoted to this field. Pure pHEMA does not possess antimicrobial properties and the site where the biomedical device is employed may be susceptible to microbial infections. Therefore, antimicrobial strategies such as the use of silver nanoparticles, antibiotics, and antimicrobial agents can be utilized to protect against infections. Therefore, the antimicrobial strategies besides the drug delivery applications of pHEMA were covered. With continuous research and advancement in science and technology, the outlook of pHEMA is promising as it will most certainly be utilized in more biomedical applications in the near future. The aim of this review was to bring together state-of-the-art research on pHEMA and their applications.

Yu Xu, Bei-Wei Zhu, Rong Sun et al.

ACS Applied Materials &amp; Interfaces • 2023

Intestinal immune dysfunction and gut microbiota dysbiosis are critically causative factors in the pathogenesis of ulcerative colitis (UC); however, the current first-line drugs for UC treatment in clinics often remain great challenges due to their nontargeting therapeutic efficacy and severe side effects. In the current study, colon-targeting nanoparticles based on Angelica sinensis polysaccharide with pH- and redox-responsiveness were fabricated to specifically release the naturally active compound ginsenoside Rh2 in the colonic inflammatory site, which greatly alleviated the UC symptoms and improved the gut microbial homeostasis. These dual responsive Rh2-loaded nanoparticles (Rh2/LA-UASP NPs) with a particle size of 117.00 ± 4.80 nm were prepared using the polymer LA-UASP obtained by grafting A. sinensis polysaccharide with urocanic acid and α-lipoic acid (α-LA). As expected, these Rh2/LA-UASP NPs achieved dual pH- and redox-responsive drug release at pH 5.5 and 10 mM GSH. The stability, biocompatibility, and in vivo safety experiments exhibited these prepared nanoparticles had excellent colon-targeting ability and significant accumulation of Rh2 in the inflammatory colon. Meanwhile, these Rh2/LA-UASP NPs could escape from lysosomes and be efficiently internalized into intestinal mucosal cells, thereby effectively inhibiting the release of proinflammatory cytokines. The animal experiments indicated that Rh2/LA-UASP NPs significantly improved the integrity of intestinal mucosa and increased the colon length compared with UC mice. Additionally, the weight loss, histological damage, and inflammation level were greatly ameliorated. The homeostasis of intestinal flora and the level of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) were significantly improved after being treated with Rh2/LA-UASP NPs in UC mice. Our study proved that these Rh2/LA-UASP NPs with dual pH-and redox-responsiveness are promising candidates for UC treatment.

Yaodong Zhao, Bingcheng Yi, Jilin Hu et al.

Advanced Functional Materials • 2023

When skin trauma occurs, rapid achievement of the post‐wound closure is required to prevent microbial invasion, inhibit scar formation and promote wound healing. To develop a wound dressing for accelerating post‐wound‐closure and wound healing, a thermo‐responsive and tissue‐adhesive hydrogel with interpenetrating polymer networks (IPN) is fabricated based on N‐dimethylbisacrylamide (NIPAM) and glutaraldehyde (GTA) cross‐linked hyaluronic acid (HA). Results not only confirm the thermo‐stimulated self‐contraction and tissue adhesiveness of the HA‐based IPN (PNI‐HA), which effectively aids wound closure via mechanical stretch, but also verify the hemocompatibility and cytocompatibility of PNI‐HA that tend to accelerate wound healing. In vivo, a mouse model of total skin defect demonstrates that PNI‐HA acting as hydrogel sealant significantly achieves the sutureless post‐wound‐closure at the early stage of wound healing, and then promotes wound healing by reducing inflammatory cells infiltration, promoting angiogenesis as well as reducing collagen deposition. These results indicate that the developed thermo‐responsive and tissue‐adhesive hydrogel dressing offers a candidate to serve as a tissue sealant for wound healing.

P. Maharshi, S. Singh, M. Gulati et al.

Current Drug Delivery • 2018

OBJECTIVE A major challenge in targeting orally administered drugs to colon is their passage through the long gastrointestinal path comprising highly variant conditions in terms of pH, viscosity, gut motility and microbial flora. Approaches to pH controlled release and microbially triggered release have proved to be successful in achieving colon targeting only to a partial extent. METHODS In an attempt to improve targeting, both these approaches have been combined together with the approach of liquisolid technology which, hitherto, remains unexplored for colon targeting. The combination of these three approaches is being reported for the first time to achieve colon targeting along with a burst release of a Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS) Class IV drug at the target site. pH controlled polymer, Eudragit® S-100 was used to prevent the release of sulfasalazine in the gastric region while microbially triggered polymers, pectin and guar gum were used to ferry the system through the intestinal region. RESULTS Liquisolid formulation was designed to provide a burst release of sulfasalazine in colon on the digestion of polysaccharide coating. CONCLUSION The results support the premise that the combination of pH sensitive, microbially triggered polymers and liquisolid formulation technique appears to be a pragmatic approach for colonic delivery of orally administered drugs.

Wan Zheng, M. Anzaldua, A. Arora et al.

Biomacromolecules • 2020

The massive use of antibiotics in healthcare and agriculture has led to their artificial accumulation in natural habitats, which risks the structure and function of microbial community in ecosystems, threatens food and water security, and accelerates the development of resistome. Ideally, antibiotics should remain fully active in clinical services while become deactivated rapidly once released into environment, but none of the current antibiotics meet this criterion. Here we show a nanoantibiotic design that epitomizes the concept of carrying a built-in "OFF" switch responsive to natural stimuli. The environmentally benign nanoantibiotics consist of cellulose backbones covalently grafted with hydrophilic polymer brushes that by themselves are antimicrobial inactive. In their nanostructured forms in services, these cellulose-based polymer molecular brushes are potent killers for both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including clinical multidrug resistant strains; after services and being discharged into environment, they are shredded into antimicrobial-inactive pieces by cellulases that do not exist in human body but are abundant in natural habitats. This study illuminates a new concept of mitigating the environmental footprints of antibiotics with rationally designed nanoantibiotics that can be dismantled and disabled by bioorthogonal chemistry occurring exclusively in natural habitats.

Lewis D. Blackman, Z. Oo, Y. Qu et al.

ACS Applied Materials &amp; Interfaces • 2020

The rise of antimicrobial resistance is at the forefront of global healthcare challenges, with antimicrobial infections on track to overtake cancer as a leading cause of death by 2050. The high effectiveness of antimicrobial enzymes used in combination with the protective, inert nature of polymer materials represents a highly novel approach towards tackling microbial infections. Herein, we have developed biohybrid glucose oxidase-loaded semi-permeable polymersome nanoreactors, formed using polymerization-induced self-assembly, and demonstrate for the first time their ability to "switch on" their antimicrobial activity in response to glucose, a ubiquitous environmental stimulus. Using minimum inhibitory concentration and colony counting assays, it was demonstrated that the nanoreactors facilitate up to a seven-log reduction in bacterial growth at high glucose concentrations against a range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacterial pathogens, including a methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus clinical isolate. After demonstrating the antimicrobial properties of these materials, their toxicity against human fibroblasts was assessed and the dosage of the nanoreactors further optimized for use as non-toxic agents against Gram-positive bacteria under physiological blood glucose concentrations. It is envisaged that such biohybrid nanomaterials will become an important new class of antimicrobial biomaterials for the treatment of bacterial infections.

Catherine Doyle, D. Combita, M. J. Dunlop et al.

Polymers • 2025

Microbial contamination is a global concern with impacts on a variety of industries ranging from marine to biomedical applications. Recent research on hydrophilic polymer-based coatings is focused on combining antifouling polymers with nanomaterials to enhance mechanical, optical, and stimuli-responsive properties, yielding colour changing, self-healing, and super hydrophilic materials. This study combines the hydrophilic and antifouling properties of vitamin B5 analogous methacrylamide (B5AMA)-based polymers with stimuli-responsive anthocyanin-dye-loaded cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) to develop antifouling materials with colour changing capabilities upon bacterial contamination. Poly(B5AMA)-grafted CNCs were prepared through surface-initiated photoiniferter reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (SP-RAFT) polymerization and characterized through proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H-NMR), transmission electron microscopy (SEM/TEM), and X-ray photon spectroscopy (XPS) to confirm the formation of surface-grafted polymer chains. The bare CNCs and poly(B5AMA)-grafted CNCs were loaded with anthocyanin dye and evaluated for pH-dependent colour changing capabilities. Interestingly, anthocyanin-loaded CNCs demonstrated vibrant colour changes in both solution and dried film form upon bacterial contamination; however, limited colour changing capabilities of the composites, specifically in dried film form, were attributed to the enhanced dispersibility and antifouling capabilities of the polymer-coated CNCs.

Sookyung Choi, H. Lee, R. Hong et al.

Polymers • 2022

Infection associated with biomedical implants remains the main cause of failure, leading to reoperation after orthopedic surgery. Orthopedic infections are characterized by microbial biofilm formation on the implant surface, which makes it challenging to diagnose and treat. One potential method to prevent and treat such complications is to deliver a sufficient dose of antibiotics at the onset of infection. This strategy can be realized by coating the implant with thermoregulatory polymers and triggering the release of antibiotics during the acute phase of infection. We developed a multi-layered temperature-responsive polymer brush (MLTRPB) coating that can release antibiotics once the temperature reaches a lower critical solution temperature (LCST). The coating system was developed using copolymers composed of diethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate and 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate by alternatively fabricating monomers layer by layer on the titanium surface. LCST was set to the temperature of 38–40 °C, a local temperature that can be reached during infection. The antibiotic elution characteristics were investigated, and the antimicrobial efficacy was tested against S. aureus species (Xen29 ATCC 29 213) using one to four layers of MLTRPB. Both in vitro and in vivo assessments demonstrated preventive effects when more than four layers of the coating were applied, ensuring promising antibacterial effects of the MLTRPB coating.

Thi Phuong Thu Nguyen, Christine Ménager, Jutta Rieger et al.

Polymer International • 2023

Abstract Combining organic and inorganic materials is a fascinating strategy to produce hybrid materials that combine the advantages of both polymeric and inorganic materials. Among the various types of organic–inorganic hybrids, stimuli‐responsive magnetic polymer hybrids (RMPHs) are particularly promising materials for a wide variety of applications. While the magnetic properties are generally provided by the presence of magnetic nanoparticles, such as iron oxide nanoparticles, the polymeric compound brings the stimuli‐responsiveness, e.g. responsiveness to pH, temperature, redox reaction or irradiation. Furthermore, as the chemical structure and architecture of the polymeric materials are diverse and easily tunable, stimuli‐RMPHs have found applications in various domains, including catalysis, biotechnology, (bio)imaging and cancer therapy. Given the importance of the hybrids' shape and morphology for the targeted application, this review presents the possible synthetic strategies to rationally design stimuli‐RMPHs of various morphologies ranging from nanometric core–shell structures to nanogels, microgels and membranes. © 2023 The Authors. Polymer International published by John Wiley &amp; Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Industrial Chemistry.

P. Pradeep, P. Kumar, Y. E. Choonara et al.

Stimuli-responsive Drug Delivery Systems • 2018

The notions of “on-demand” and “on–off” therapeutic intervention fits perfectly with electro-responsive drug delivery (ERDD) systems, wherein an external modulation of bioactive release can be realised and even programmed. Conventionally, electroactive candidates such as polyaniline, polypyrrole, polythiophene, ethylene vinyl acetate, and polyethylene were blended with polymeric or peptide hydrogels. However, the recent interests in ERDD derive from the integration of material composites (such as carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, clay enclatherates, and microtubes) together with responsive hydrogels to provide enhanced and more electro-controllable drug delivery platforms. This chapter provides an insight into recent advances in integrated polymer composites for ERDD and a molecular mechanistic outlook to the performance and setup of such stimuli responsive systems.